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The French Revolution Fostered the Rise of a Middle Class Society
The French Revolution, a period of radical social and political upheaval, is often remembered for its iconic imagery: storming of the Bastille, the Reign of Terror, and the rise and fall of Napoleon. But beyond the dramatic events lies a less discussed, yet equally significant consequence: the dramatic fostering of a powerful and influential middle class. This post will delve into the complex relationship between the revolution and the burgeoning bourgeoisie, exploring how the upheaval fundamentally reshaped French society and laid the groundwork for modern class structures. We’ll examine the pre-revolutionary social order, the key changes wrought by the revolution, and the lasting impact on the development of a middle class.
The Ancien Régime: A Society of Orders
Before 1789, France operated under the Ancien Régime, a rigid social hierarchy divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners (the Third Estate). This system heavily favored the privileged upper two estates, who enjoyed extensive tax exemptions and significant political power. The Third Estate, encompassing everyone from wealthy merchants to impoverished peasants, bore the brunt of taxation and lacked political representation. This inherent inequality fueled widespread resentment and ultimately triggered the revolution.
The Third Estate: A Diverse Group
Within the Third Estate, a burgeoning middle class, known as the bourgeoisie, was already emerging. This group included professionals like lawyers, doctors, and merchants, along with wealthy landowners and entrepreneurs. While economically powerful, they were politically marginalized, restricted by their lack of noble status and subjected to unfair taxation. Their growing wealth and intellectual awakening, fueled by Enlightenment ideals, contributed significantly to the revolutionary fervor.
The Revolution's Impact on the Middle Class
The French Revolution fundamentally altered the social landscape, directly impacting the rise of the middle class in several key ways:
1. Dismantling of Feudal Privileges:
The revolution's initial decrees abolished feudal rights and privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy. This single act dramatically leveled the playing field, eliminating many of the legal and economic barriers that had previously hindered the bourgeoisie's advancement. The elimination of internal tariffs and the standardization of weights and measures also facilitated economic growth and expansion for merchants and entrepreneurs.
2. Rise of Meritocracy (at least in principle):
The revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity promoted a meritocratic system, at least in principle. While the reality was often more complex, the emphasis on talent and ability, rather than birthright, opened opportunities for individuals from the Third Estate to rise in society through education and achievement. New administrative and bureaucratic positions became available, further boosting the middle class.
3. Expansion of Education and Opportunities:
The revolution, despite its tumultuous nature, spurred advancements in education. The creation of new schools and universities, though unevenly distributed, expanded access to learning and professional training, thereby contributing to the growth of a more skilled and educated middle class.
4. Economic Growth and Expansion:
The dismantling of the old economic structures and the introduction of new policies fostered economic growth. The Napoleonic Code, while authoritarian, provided a stable legal framework that facilitated trade and commerce, further enriching the burgeoning middle class.
The Lasting Legacy: A Transformed Society
The French Revolution, despite its violence and instability, fundamentally transformed French society. It laid the foundation for a more egalitarian system, although the full realization of its ideals remained a long-term project. The revolution's impact on the middle class was profound and lasting. The bourgeoisie, once a marginalized group, emerged as a powerful force, shaping the political and economic landscape of France and influencing the development of modern class structures across Europe and beyond. The increased social mobility, the emphasis on meritocracy, and the economic opportunities created by the revolution solidified the rise of the middle class, leaving an indelible mark on the course of history.
Conclusion
The French Revolution was far more than a political upheaval; it was a profound social transformation. While the revolution's initial goals of complete equality were not fully realized, its legacy undoubtedly includes the dramatic rise of a powerful and influential middle class. The dismantling of feudal privileges, the promotion of meritocracy (in principle), and the expansion of economic opportunities all contributed to the bourgeoisie's elevation to a position of prominence, shaping the social, political, and economic landscape of France and the world for centuries to come.
FAQs
Q1: Did all members of the Third Estate benefit equally from the revolution?
A1: No, the benefits of the revolution were not evenly distributed among members of the Third Estate. While the bourgeoisie generally gained significantly, the peasantry and urban poor often experienced continued hardship and poverty.
Q2: How did the Napoleonic Code impact the middle class?
A2: The Napoleonic Code, though authoritarian, provided a stable legal framework that facilitated commerce and trade, benefiting the middle class through increased economic opportunities. It also standardized legal practices across the country, making business operations more predictable.
Q3: What role did Enlightenment ideas play in the rise of the middle class during the French Revolution?
A3: Enlightenment ideals of individual liberty, reason, and equality fueled the revolutionary spirit and provided an intellectual justification for challenging the existing social order. These ideas resonated particularly strongly within the burgeoning middle class, who saw themselves as deserving of greater political and economic power.
Q4: Did the French Revolution lead to complete equality?
A4: No, the French Revolution did not lead to complete social and economic equality. While it significantly weakened the power of the aristocracy and created opportunities for social mobility, substantial inequalities persisted, particularly between the wealthy bourgeoisie and the working class.
Q5: How did the rise of the middle class affect French politics after the Revolution?
A5: The rise of the middle class significantly altered the political landscape of France. They became a powerful political force, demanding and eventually achieving greater representation and influence in government. Their economic power allowed them to exert considerable pressure on political decision-making.
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Building Jerusalem Tristram Hunt, 2019-09-26 'History writing at its compulsive best' A. N. Wilson This is a history of the ideas that shaped not only London, but Manchester, Glasgow, Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham, Sheffield and other power-houses of 19th-century Britain. It charts the controversies and visions that fostered Britain's greatest civic renaissance. Tristram Hunt explores the horrors of the Victorian city, as seen by Dickens, Engels and Carlyle; the influence of the medieval Gothic ideal of faith, community and order espoused by Pugin and Ruskin; the pride in self-government, identified with the Saxons as opposed to the Normans; the identification with the city republics of the Italian renaissance - commerce, trade and patronage; the change from the civic to the municipal, and greater powers over health, education and housing; and finally at the end of the century, the retreat from the urban to the rural ideal, led by William Morris and the garden-city movement of Ebenezer Howard. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Britain in the Age of the French Revolution Jennifer Mori, 2014-07-22 This new survey looks at the impact in Britain of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic aftermath, across all levels of British society. Jennifer Mori provides a clear and accessible guide to the ideas and intellectual debates the revolution stimulated, as well as popular political movements including radicalism. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Audacity of His Enterprise M. Max Hamon, 2020-01-09 Shining a spotlight on the life, vision, and cultivation of one of Canada's most influential historical figures. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: A Theory of Public Opinion Francis Graham Wilson, 2013-08-31 This book traces the emergence of the ideas and institutions that evolved to give people mastery over their own destiny through the force of public opinion. The Greek belief in citizen participation is shown as the ground upon which the idea of public opinion began and grew. For Wilson, public opinion is an orderly force, contributing to social and political life. Wilson appraises the influence of modern psychology and the slow appearance of methodologies that would enable people not only to measure the opinions of others, but to mold them as well. He examines the relation of the theory of public opinion to the intellectuals, the middle class, and the various revolutionary and proletarian movements of the modern era. The circumstances in which the individual may refuse to follow the opinions of the experts are succinctly and movingly analyzed. This book is a historical and philosophical evaluation of a concept that has played a decisive part in history, and whose overwhelming force is underestimated. The author’s insight brings an understanding that is invaluable at a time when public opinion, the force developed to enable the ruled to restrain their rulers, has become controllable. Attempts to manipulate it are made by those who would impose their will upon their fellow men. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The End of the American Era Charles Kupchan, 2007-12-18 Refuting the conventional wisdom that the end of the Cold War cleared the way for an era of peace and prosperity led solely by the United States, Charles A. Kupchan contends that the next challenge to America’s might is fast emerging. It comes not from the Islamic world or an ascendant China, but from an integrating Europe that is rising as a counterweight to the United States. Decades of strategic partnership across the Atlantic are giving way to renewed geopolitical competition. The waning of U.S. primacy will be expedited by America’s own ambivalence about remaining the globe’s guardian and by the impact of the digital age on the country’s politics and its role in the world. By deftly mining the lessons of history to cast light on the present and future, Kupchan explains how America and the world should prepare for the more complex, more unstable road ahead. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Nonfictional Romantic Prose Steven P. Sondrup, Virgil Nemoianu, 2004-03-31 Nonfictional Romantic Prose: Expanding Borders surveys a broad range of expository, polemical, and analytical literary forms that came into prominence during the last two decades of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth. They stand in contrast to better-known romantic fiction in that they endeavor to address the world of daily, empirical experience rather than that of more explicitly self-referential, fanciful creation. Among them are genres that have since the nineteenth century come to characterize many aspects of modern life like the periodical or the psychological case study; others flourished and enjoyed wide-spread popularity during the nineteenth century but are much less well-known today like the almanac and the diary. Travel narratives, pamphlets, religious and theological texts, familiar essays, autobiographies, literary-critical and philosophical studies, and discussions of the visual arts and music all had deep historical roots when appropriated by romantic writers but prospered in their hands and assumed distinctive contours indicative of the breadth of romantic thought. SPECIAL OFFER: 30% discount for a complete set order (5 vols.).The Romanticism series in the Comparative History of Literatures in European Languages is the result of a remarkable international collaboration. The editorial team coordinated the efforts of over 100 experts from more than two dozen countries to produce five independently conceived, yet interrelated volumes that show not only how Romanticism developed and spread in its principal European homelands and throughout the New World, but also the ways in which the affected literatures in reaction to Romanticism have redefined themselves on into Modernism. A glance at the index of each volume quickly reveals the extraordinary richness of the series’ total contents. Romantic Irony sets the broader experimental parameters of comparison by concentrating on the myriad expressions of “irony” as one of the major impulses in the Romantic philosophical and artistic revolution, and by combining cross-cultural and interdisciplinary studies with special attention also to literatures in less widely diffused language streams. Romantic Drama traces creative innovations that deeply altered the understanding of genre at large, fed popular imagination through vehicles like the opera, and laid the foundations for a modernist theater of the absurd. Romantic Poetry demonstrates deep patterns and a sharing of crucial themes of the revolutionary age which underlie the lyrical expression that flourished in so many languages and environments. Nonfictional Romantic Prose assists us in coping with the vast array of writings from the personal and intimate sphere to modes of public discourse, including Romanticism’s own self-commentary in theoretical statements on the arts, society, life, the sciences, and more. Nor are the discursive dimensions of imaginative literature neglected in the closing volume, Romantic Prose Fiction, where the basic Romantic themes and story types (the romance, novel, novella, short story, and other narrative forms) are considered throughout Europe and the New World. This enormous realm is seen not just in terms of Romantic theorizing, but in the light of the impact of Romantic ideas and narration on later generations. As an aid to readers, the introduction to Romantic Prose Fiction explains the relationships among the volumes in the series and carries a listing of their tables of contents in an appendix. No other series exists comparable to these volumes which treat the entirety of Romanticism as a cultural happening across the whole breadth of the “Old” and “New” Worlds and thus render a complex picture of European spiritual strivings in the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, a heritage still very close to our age. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870-1930 Geoff Eley, 1996 Bold new essays on Germany's critical Kaiserreich period. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Emergence of a Greek Identity (1700-1821) Stratos Myrogiannis, 2012-01-17 This book examines the role of Greek-speaking intellectuals in nation-formation processes during the Greek Enlightenment. The author explores how scholars invoked the concept of the ‘nation’ and issues closely related to it in order to enforce their demands either for educational reform or for national independence. To be more specific, he studies the construction of a Modern Greek identity in relation to the Greek and European Enlightenment from 1700 up to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821. The theoretical framework the author deploys is twofold. On the one hand, he exploits the methodological tools provided by the ‘history of concepts’, as formulated by Koselleck, Pocock and Skinner. On the other hand, he deploys specific concepts from current approaches on nation-formation processes in history, drawn especially from the works of Anthony Smith, Benedict Anderson and Eric Hobsbawm. He examines the discursive strategies but also the ideology of relevant works, mainly geographies, histories and political treatises. The corpus of works he studies includes both well-known texts (e.g. by Koraes, Katartzis and Rigas), but also much ignored and so far unexamined works (e.g. by Stanos and Alexandridis). Three arguments are intertwined in the present study. The first issue that this thesis claims to address is the exploration of the incorporation of Byzantium into a Greek historical schema. During the eighteenth century Greek intellectuals attempted to rewrite the history of the Greeks and their main problem was integrating in their narrative the Greek Middle Ages. This period was viewed by them as a historical gap. In their attempt to bridge this gap, the answer they gradually came up with was the invention of what Koraes first named, earlier than is previously thought, ‘Byzantine history’. Secondly, the present study clarifies the particularities of a transformation process regarding the self-image of the Greeks as a political community. This process is evident in the writings of Greek-speaking intellectuals. Influenced by modernity and the emergence of the new political paradigm of the ‘nation’ these scholars imagined Greek-speaking people in terms of a national community. The third argument this book aims to develop is the historical link between the Enlightenment as a philosophical movement and nationalism as an ideology. The author suggests a reinterpretation of the last stage of the Greek Enlightenment. He argues that Greek-speaking scholars transmuted enlightening doctrines into a nationalist ideology in order to satisfy the new political needs of the Greek nation for the creation of an independent state. This enlightened nationalism, however, was not related to the subsequent Romantic ideology, but it was based on the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment. All in all, this book aims to contribute to the study of the Greek Enlightenment by throwing further light on the complex issues of self-image and identity. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution François Furet, Mona Ozouf, 1989 The French Revolution--that extraordinary event that founded modern democracy--continues to provoke a reevaluation of essential questions. This volume presents the research of a wide range of international scholars into those questions. 58 color illustrations, 10 halftones. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Rise of the Novel Nicholas Seager, 2017-09-16 Why have scholars located the emergence of the novel in eighteenth-century England? What historical forces and stylistic developments helped to turn a disreputable type of writing into an eminent literary form? This Reader's Guide explores the key critical debates and theories about the rising novel, from eighteenth-century assessments through to present day concerns. Nicholas Seager: - Surveys major criticism on authors such as Aphra Behn, Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding and Jane Austen - Covers a range of critical approaches and topics including feminism, historicism, postcolonialism and print culture - Demonstrates how critical work is interrelated, allowing readers to discern trends in the critical conversation. Approachable and stimulating, this is an invaluable introduction for anyone studying the origins of the novel and the surrounding body of scholarship. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Melbourne Historical Journal , 1968 |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Companion to Historiography Michael Bentley, 2006-02-27 The Companion to Historiography is an original analysis of the moods and trends in historical writing throughout its phases of development and explores the assumptions and procedures that have formed the creation of historical perspectives. Contributed by a distinguished panel of academics, each essay conveys in direct, jargon-free language a genuinely international, wide-angled view of the ideas, traditions and institutions that lie behind the contemporary urgency of world history. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Romantic Imagination Frederick Burwick, Jürgen Klein, 1996 |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Practicing Religion in the Age of the Media Stewart M. Hoover, Lynn Schofield Clark, 2002-03-06 Increasingly, the religious practices people engage in and the ways they talk about what is meaningful or sacred take place in the context of media culture—in the realm of the so-called secular. Focusing on this intersection of the sacred and the secular, this volume gathers together the work of media experts, religious historians, sociologists of religion, and authorities on American studies and art history. Topics range from Islam on the Internet to the quasi-religious practices of Elvis fans, from the uses of popular culture by the Salvation Army in its early years to the uses of interactive media technologies at the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Beit Hashoah Museum of Tolerance. The issues that the essays address include the public/private divide, the distinctions between the sacred and profane, and how to distinguish between the practices that may be termed religious and those that may not. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The French Revolution Georges Lefebvre, 2001 |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Modern France Vanessa R. Schwartz, 2011-10-10 The French Revolution, politics and the modern nation -- French and the civilizing mission -- Paris and magnetic appeal -- France stirs up the melting pot -- France hurtles into the future. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The French Nonprofit Sector Laura Nirello, Lionel Prouteau, 2018-08-20 This article deals with the literature on the French nonprofit sector (NPS). A preliminary part is devoted to presenting and discussing the characteristics that shape the approaches to this sector in France. We stress the strong influence of legal categories on the sector’s definition and, in this context, the importance of the status inherited from the 1901 Act on contracts of association. This raises a problem for a more analytical approach to the sector, because the diversity of the nonprofit organizations (NPOs) regulated under this Act risks being overshadowed. In this first part, we also underline the primacy accorded in France to the concept of the social economy, which has today become the social and solidarity economy (SSE), over that of the nonprofit sector. In the second part, the article outlines some landmarks in the history of the French NPS. French NPOs were for many years objects of suspicion, arbitrariness and repression on the part of the public authorities and this persisted until the 1901 legislation on contracts of association was enacted. However, this hostile context did not prevent the sector from having a richer existence than is sometimes admitted. This literature review also focuses on empirical studies of the sector, placing a particular emphasis on the more recent ones. These French studies basically adopt two types of approach. The first is concerned essentially with the NPOs and focuses its attention on their economic importance, whether measured in terms of financial resources, employment, or, less frequently, added value. The second approach investigates the kinds of individual participation the sector engenders by examining the various forms it takes, such as membership of NPOs or voluntary work. This review ends with the analysis of the challenges that NPS faces in a context characterized by the increasing constraints on public funding, changes in the nature of such funding with a substitution of contracts for subsidies, an increased competition among NPOs as well as between NPOs and for-profit enterprises. The article concludes that, despite the advances in research on the French NPS, some aspects—like formal volunteering and the role of voluntary associations—are still understudied, while others—like informal groups and informal volunteering—are almost totally ignored. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Histories of Leisure Rudy Koshar, 2002-04-01 In the wake of the American and French revolutions, European culture saw the evolution of a new leisure regime never previously enjoyed. Now we speak of modern leisure societies, but the history of leisure, its experiences and expectations, its scope and variability, still remains largely a matter of conjecture. One message that has emerged from a multiplicity of disciplines is that research on leisure and consumption opens up a hitherto untapped mine of information on the broader issues of politics, society, culture and economics. How have leisure regimes in Europe evolved since the eighteenth century? Why has leisure culture crystallized around particular practices, sites and objects? Above all, what sorts of connections and meanings have been inscribed in leisure practices, and how might these be compared across time and space? This book is the first to provide an historical overview of modern leisure in a wide range of manifestations: travel, entertainment, sports, fashion, 'taste' and much more. It will be essential reading for anyone wishing to know more about European history and culture or simply how people spent their free time before the age of television and the internet. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Vatican and the Red Flag Jonathan Luxmoore, Jolanta Babiuch, 2000-01-01 This work tells the story of the Catholic Church's confrontation with communism, from the French Revolution onwards, but with particular emphasis on the post-War period. It sets out new evidence of how successive Popes unwittingly helped communism expand. Interwoven with this narrative is the life-story of Karol Woytyla, who as Pope John Paul II is the first Eastern European Pope to sit on the throne of Peter. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Comparative Politics Jeffrey Kopstein, Mark Lichbach, 2005-09-05 Now in a completely updated second edition, this textbook has become a favorite for the introductory undergraduate course in comparative politics. It features ten theoretically and historically grounded country studies that show how the three major concepts of comparative analysis - interests, identities, and institutions - shape the politics of nations. Throughout the presentation, countries appear in the context of a changing global order that creates challenges to each country's path of development. These challenges frequently alter domestic interests and identities, and force countries to find new institutional solutions to the problems of modern politics. Written in a style free of heavy-handed jargon and organized to address the concerns of contemporary comparativists, this textbook provides students with the conceptual tools and historical background they need to understand the politics of our complex world. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Global Connections John Coatsworth, Juan Cole, Michael P. Hanagan, Peter C. Perdue, Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, 2015-03-16 Emphasizing global interconnectedness, Volume 2 of this undergraduate history textbook covers the early modern period through to modern times. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Family Fortunes Leonore Davidoff, Catherine Hall, 2018-12-12 First published to wide critical acclaim in 1987, Family Fortunes has become a seminal text in class and gender history, and its influence in the field continues to be extensive today. The book explores the middle-class family and its place in the development of capitalist society. It argues that gender and class need to be thought about together – that class was always gendered and gender always classed. Divided into three parts, the book covers religion and ideology, economic structure and opportunity, and gender in action across two main case studies: the rural counties of Suffolk and Essex and the industrial town of Birmingham. This third edition contains a new introductory section by Catherine Hall, reflecting on some of the major developments in historical thinking over the last fifteen years and discussing the evolution of key themes such as the family. Providing critical insight into the perception of middle-class society and gender relations between 1780 and 1850, this volume is essential reading for students of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century British social history. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Prophet Isaac Deutscher, 2015-01-05 Few political figures of the twentieth century have aroused such intensities of fierce admiration and reactionary fear as Russian revolutionary Leon Trotsky. His extraordinary life and extensive writings have left an indelible mark on the revolutionary consciousness. Yet there was once a danger that his life and influence would be relegated to the footnotes of history. Published over the course of ten years, beginning in 1954, Deutscher's magisterial three-volume biography turned back the tide of Stalin's propaganda, and has since been praised by everyone from Tony Blair to Graham Greene. In this definitive work, now reissued in a single volume, Trotsky's true stature emerges as the most heroic, and ultimately tragic, character of the Russian Revolution. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Turban for the Crown Said Amir Arjomand, 1988 This comprehensive history of the Iranian Revolution views it in the context of an ongoing conflict between religious and political authorities dating back to the establishment of Shi'ism as the state religion of Iran in 1501. The historical context is seen as being critical in understanding the staying power of Khomeini's regime and its ruthless elimination of internal opposition to the Islamic Republic. The significance of the appearance of widespread popular discontent, the ideological differences among the ruling clergy, and the issue of Khomeini's succession are also considered, and the book concludes with a comparison between the Iranian Revolution and other famous historical revolutions. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Education and Society in Post-Mao China Edward Vickers, Zeng Xiaodong, 2017-06-26 The post-Mao period has witnessed rapid social and economic transformation in all walks of Chinese life – much of it fuelled by, or reflected in, changes to the country’s education system. This book analyses the development of that system since the abandonment of radical Maoism and the inauguration of ‘Reform and Opening’ in the late 1970s. The principal focus is on formal education in schools and conventional institutions of tertiary education, but there is also some discussion of preschools, vocational training, and learning in non-formal contexts. The book begins with a discussion of the historical and comparative context for evaluating China’s educational ‘achievements’, followed by an extensive discussion of the key transitions in education policymaking during the ‘Reform and Opening’ period. This informs the subsequent examination of changes affecting the different phases of education from preschool to tertiary level. There are also chapters dealing specifically with the financing and administration of schooling, curriculum development, the public examinations system, the teaching profession, the phenomenon of marketisation, and the ‘international dimension’ of Chinese education. The book concludes with an assessment of the social consequences of educational change in the post-Mao era and a critical discussion of the recent fashion in certain Western countries for hailing China as an educational model. The analysis is supported by a wealth of sources – primary and secondary, textual and statistical – and is informed by both authors’ wide-ranging experience of Chinese education. As the first monograph on China's educational development during the forty years of the post-Mao era, this book will be essential reading for all those seeking to understand the world’s largest education system. It will also be crucial reference for educational comparativists, and for scholars from various disciplinary backgrounds researching contemporary Chinese society. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Making Scientific Instruments in the Industrial Revolution A.D. Morrison-Low, 2017-03-02 At the start of the Industrial Revolution, it appeared that most scientific instruments were made and sold in London, but by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851, a number of provincial firms had the self-confidence to exhibit their products in London to an international audience. How had this change come about, and why? This book looks at the four main, and two lesser, English centres known for instrument production outside the capital: Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Sheffield, along with the older population centres in Bristol and York. Making wide use of new sources, Dr Morrison-Low, curator of history of science at the National Museums of Scotland, charts the growth of these centres and provides a characterisation of their products. New information is provided on aspects of the trade, especially marketing techniques, sources of materials, tools and customer relationships. From contemporary evidence, she argues that the principal output of the provincial trade (with some notable exceptions) must have been into the London marketplace, anonymously, and at the cheaper end of the market. She also discusses the structure and organization of the provincial trade, and looks at the impact of new technology imported from other closely-allied trades. By virtue of its approach and subject matter the book considers aspects of economic and business history, gender and the family, the history of science and technology, material culture, and patterns of migration. It contains a myriad of stories of families and firms, of entrepreneurs and customers, and of organizations and arms of government. In bringing together this wide range of interests, Dr Morrison-Low enables us to appreciate how central the making, selling and distribution of scientific instruments was for the Industrial Revolution. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Return of Nature John Bellamy Foster, 2020-06-16 Winner, 2020 Isaac and Tamara Deutscher Memorial Prize A fascinating reinterpretation of the radical and socialist origins of ecology Twenty years ago, John Bellamy Foster’s Marx’s Ecology: Materialism and Nature introduced a new understanding of Karl Marx’s revolutionary ecological materialism. More than simply a study of Marx, it commenced an intellectual and social history, en-compassing thinkers from Epicurus to Darwin, who developed materialist and ecological ideas. Now, with The Return of Nature: Socialism and Ecology, Foster continues this narrative. In so doing, he uncovers a long history of the efforts to unite questions of social justice and environmental sustainability, and helps us comprehend and counter today’s unprecedented planetary emergencies. The Return of Nature begins with the deaths of Darwin (1882) and Marx (1883) and moves on until the rise of the ecological age in the 1960s and 1970s. Foster explores how socialist analysts and materialist scientists of various stamps, first in Britain, then the United States, from William Morris and Frederick Engels, to Joseph Needham, Rachel Carson, and Stephen J. Gould, sought to develop a dialectical naturalism, rooted in a critique of capitalism. In the process, he delivers a far-reaching and fascinating reinterpretation of the radical and socialist origins of ecology. Ultimately, what this book asks for is nothing short of revolution: a long, ecological revolution, aimed at making peace with the planet while meeting collective human needs. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Environment and Social Theory John Barry, 2007-01-24 Written in an engaging and accessible manner by one of the leading scholars in his field, Environment and Social Theory, completed revised and updated with two new chapters, is an indispensable guide to the way in which the environment and social theory relate to one another. This popular text outlines the complex interlinking of the environment, nature and social theory from ancient and pre-modern thinking to contemporary social theorizing. John Barry: examines the ways major religions such as Judaeo-Christianity have and continue to conceptualize the environment analyzes the way the non-human environment features in Western thinking from Marx and Darwin, to Freud and Horkheimer explores the relationship between gender and the environment, postmodernism and risk society schools of thought, and the contemporary ideology of orthodox economic thinking in social theorising about the environment. How humans value, use and think about the environment, is an increasingly central and important aspect of recent social theory. It has become clear that the present generation is faced with a series of unique environmental dilemmas, largely unprecedented in human history. With summary points, illustrative examples, glossary and further reading sections this invaluable resource will benefit anyone with an interest in environmentalism, politics, sociology, geography, development studies and environmental and ecological economics. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Illustrated Encyclopaedia of World Histiry , |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution Jane Humphries, 2010-06-24 This is a unique account of working-class childhood during the British industrial revolution, first published in 2010. Using more than 600 autobiographies written by working men of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Jane Humphries illuminates working-class childhood in contexts untouched by conventional sources and facilitates estimates of age at starting work, social mobility, the extent of apprenticeship and the duration of schooling. The classic era of industrialisation, 1790–1850, apparently saw an upsurge in child labour. While the memoirs implicate mechanisation and the division of labour in this increase, they also show that fatherlessness and large subsets, common in these turbulent, high-mortality and high-fertility times, often cast children as partners and supports for mothers struggling to hold families together. The book offers unprecedented insights into child labour, family life, careers and schooling. Its images of suffering, stoicism and occasional childish pleasures put the humanity back into economic history and the trauma back into the industrial revolution. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Creative Impulse Dennis J. Sporre, 2003 This book presents readers with an overview of the arts in the Western tradition; in the contexts of the philosophy, religion, aesthetic theory, economics, and politics surrounding them. It is an historical introduction to the humanities yielding a basic familiarity with major styles and their implications as well as a sense of the historical development of individual arts disciplines. Includes comprehensive and equal treatment of the histories of all the arts as well as a vibrant color illustration program. Explores such topics as Greek Classicism and Hellenism, Byzantium and the Rise of Islam, and The Baroque Age. For anyone interested in artwork or the history of art, whether in a museum, theatre, concert hall, or on the street. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Men, Women and Property in England, 1780–1870 R. J. Morris, 2005-02-03 This is an innovative study of middle-class behaviour and property relations in English towns in Georgian and Victorian Britain. Through the lens of wills, family papers, property deeds, account books and letters, the author offers a reading of the ways in which middle-class families survived and surmounted the economic difficulties of early industrial society. He argues that these were essentially 'networked' families created and affirmed by a 'gift' network of material goods, finance, services and support, with property very much at the centre of middle-class survival strategies. His approach combines microhistorical studies of individual families with a broader analysis of the national and even international networks within which these families operated. The result is a significant contribution to the history, and to debates about the place of structural and cultural analysis in historical understanding. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Moon Living Abroad Paris Aurelia d'Andrea, 2014-11-25 Writer Aurelia d'Andrea knows what it takes to make the move to Paris—she's done it twice. In Moon Living Abroad in Paris, she uses her know-how to provide insight and firsthand advice on navigating the language and culture of this enchanting city, outlining all the information you need to manage your move abroad in a smart, organized, and straightforward manner. Moon Living Abroad in Paris is packed with essential information and must-have details on setting up daily life, including obtaining visas, arranging finances, gaining employment, choosing schools, and finding health care. With color and black and white photos, illustrations, and maps to help you find your bearings, Moon Living Abroad in Paris makes the transition process easy for businesspeople, adventurers, students, teachers, professionals, families, couples, and retirees looking to relocate. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Vacation Decision Making Alain Decrop, 2006 This book explores the complex decision-making processes involved in choosing and buying tourism products and services. It combines a theoretical overview of the basics of tourist behaviour and decision-making, with the results of an in-depth qualitative study of vacationers. It considers both the generic decision to go on vacation, or not, and more specific travel decisions, such as destination and accommodation type, from an individual and social point of view. It looks at how, when, and why such decisions are made, and the factors that influence the final outcome. The book concludes by rejecting existing tourist typologies in favour of a new typology of vacationers. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Quest for Political Unity in World History Stanley McCrory Pargellis, 1944 |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief Carl Smith, 2008-09-15 The Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the Haymarket bombing of 1886, and the making and unmaking of the model town of Pullman—these remarkable events in what many considered the quintessential American city forced people across the country to confront the disorder that seemed inevitably to accompany urban growth and social change. In Urban Disorder and the Shape of Belief, Carl Smith explores the imaginative dimensions of these events as he traces the evolution of interconnected beliefs and actions that increasingly linked city, disorder, and social reality in the minds of Americans. Examining a remarkable range of writings and illustrations, as well as protests, public gatherings, trials, hearings, and urban reform and construction efforts, Smith argues that these three events—and the public awareness of them—not only informed one another, but collectively shaped how Americans understood, and continue to understand, Chicago and modern urban life. This classic of urban cultural history is updated with a foreword by the author that expands our understanding of urban disorder to encompass such recent examples as Hurricane Katrina, the Oklahoma City Bombing, and 9/11. “Cultural history at its finest. By utilizing questions and methodologies of urban studies, social history, and literary history, Smith creates a sophisticated account of changing visions of urban America.”—Robin F. Bachin, Journal of Interdisciplinary History |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Cultural Change in Modern World History Peter N. Stearns, 2018-12-13 In this innovative textbook, leading world historian Peter Stearns analyses key examples of culture change from around the world, highlighting what culture change involves and how it can be explained and assessed, both historically and in the contemporary world. Culture change is one of the most interesting and significant features of human society, but until now there has been no book for the classroom which looks explicitly at this phenomenon. Cultural Change in Modern World History covers different kinds and levels of culture change since 1500 – from colonial culture contact in British India to modernization in Meiji Japan and changing attitudes towards gay marriage in the past decade – considering how we should define culture change, how to deal with causation and how to evaluate continuities and consequences. Stearns addresses fundamental questions: why do groups of people change their beliefs and values, and what happens when they do? Conversely, why do some groups resist culture change, and how do some manage to combine novel and more traditional cultural components? Figuring out how better to understand why groups or societies change their minds – or refuse to do so – provides a crucial perspective on human behaviors and values. As the first book to explore this important question, Cultural Change in Modern World History is a ground-breaking text for students of world history, cultural history and anthropology. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: The Working-class Intellectual in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-century Britain Aruna Krishnamurthy, 2009 This collection of essays contributes to scholarship on the emergence of the working classes, by filtering the formation of working-class identity through the rise of the working-class intellectual, a unique cultural figure at the crossroads of two disparate worlds. The essays cover a range of familiar and unfamiliar figures from the 1730s to the 1850s, shedding light on key moments of working-class self-expression. |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: Kagan, the Western Heritage Since 1300 Donald Kagan, Kagan, Perry McAdow Rogers, 2003-08 |
| the french revolution fostered the rise of a middle class society: An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution Mary Wollstonecraft, 1794 |
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The French Revolution Fostered the Rise of a Middle Class Society. The French Revolution, a period of radical social and political upheaval, is often remembered for its iconic imagery: storming of the Bastille, the Reign of Terror, and the rise and fall of Napoleon.
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The fall of the “bourgeois revolution” thesis since roughly has had profound implications. It raises questions about the ways in which the social sciences can draw upon historical evidence, and …
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