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Section 33.3: Form and Function in Chordates: A Deep Dive
Have you ever wondered about the incredible diversity of animals, from the graceful swan to the slithering snake? Underlying this breathtaking array of life forms is a shared evolutionary heritage: the chordate body plan. This post delves into the crucial aspects of Section 33.3 (a common section title in comparative anatomy textbooks), exploring the form and function of key chordate characteristics. We’ll examine how these features—the notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail, and endostyle/thyroid—contribute to the remarkable success and adaptability of chordates. Get ready for an insightful journey into the fascinating world of vertebrate and invertebrate chordate anatomy and physiology!
The Defining Characteristics of Chordates: A Recap
Before we dissect the intricacies of Section 33.3, let's refresh our understanding of the five key characteristics that define chordates:
1. Notochord: The Flexible Rod
The notochord is a flexible rod of mesodermal cells that provides support. In many chordates, it's replaced by the vertebral column during development, forming the backbone. Its function is crucial for early embryonic development and locomotion, providing a skeletal axis against which muscles can contract.
2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord: The Information Highway
This unique feature, located dorsally (above) the notochord, develops into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) in vertebrates. It's a hollow tube, in contrast to the solid nerve cords found in invertebrates, and represents a significant evolutionary leap in neural complexity.
3. Pharyngeal Slits: Ancient Breathing Holes
Initially used for filter feeding in ancestral chordates, pharyngeal slits are openings in the pharynx (throat region). In aquatic chordates, they function in respiration and feeding. In terrestrial vertebrates, they are modified into structures like the Eustachian tubes (connecting the middle ear to the pharynx) and tonsils.
4. Post-Anal Tail: The Propulsion System
This muscular tail extends posterior to the anus. Its primary function is locomotion in many aquatic chordates. While greatly reduced or absent in some adult vertebrates, its presence in embryonic development underscores its evolutionary significance.
5. Endostyle/Thyroid Gland: Iodine Metabolism
The endostyle is found in invertebrate chordates and is involved in iodine metabolism. It's homologous to the thyroid gland in vertebrates, which produces hormones crucial for regulating metabolism and growth.
Section 33.3: Exploring Form and Function in Detail
Section 33.3 typically focuses on the specific adaptations and modifications of these five defining characteristics across various chordate groups. This includes examining how these features are expressed differently in different taxa, highlighting the evolutionary pressures that shaped their form and function.
Variations in Notochord Structure and Function
The notochord's structure and persistence vary significantly. While some retain it throughout life, others, like mammals, replace it with a vertebral column. The degree of ossification (bone formation) in the vertebral column also varies, reflecting different locomotor needs and environmental pressures.
The Evolution of the Nervous System
The dorsal hollow nerve cord's development into a complex brain and spinal cord is a hallmark of vertebrate evolution. The increasing complexity of the nervous system correlates with more sophisticated sensory perception, motor control, and behavioral responses.
Diversity of Pharyngeal Slits and Their Derivatives
The modifications of pharyngeal slits illustrate remarkable evolutionary adaptability. In fish, they serve as gills for respiration. In terrestrial vertebrates, they are modified into structures associated with hearing, swallowing, and the immune system.
Post-Anal Tail: From Propulsion to Balance
The post-anal tail’s role in locomotion is paramount in many aquatic chordates, but it has been adapted for other functions in terrestrial animals. In some primates, it aids in balance and arboreal locomotion (movement through trees). In humans, it’s a vestigial structure, reflecting our evolutionary history.
Endostyle to Thyroid: A Crucial Metabolic Shift
The evolutionary transition from the endostyle to the thyroid gland reflects a shift from filter feeding to more complex metabolic processes in vertebrates. The thyroid’s role in regulating metabolism is essential for growth, development, and overall physiological homeostasis.
Conclusion
Understanding Section 33.3, encompassing the form and function of chordate characteristics, is pivotal for grasping the incredible diversity and evolutionary success of this major phylum. By examining the adaptations and modifications of these five defining features across different chordate groups, we gain invaluable insights into the evolutionary forces that have shaped the animal kingdom. This knowledge provides a foundational understanding of comparative anatomy and evolutionary biology.
FAQs
1. What is the significance of the notochord's replacement by the vertebral column? The vertebral column offers greater structural support and protection for the spinal cord, enabling greater mobility and size in vertebrates.
2. How do pharyngeal slits contribute to the success of aquatic chordates? Pharyngeal slits facilitate efficient respiration and filter feeding, allowing aquatic chordates to thrive in diverse aquatic environments.
3. Are there any exceptions to the five key chordate characteristics? Some adult chordates may lack some characteristics, like a post-anal tail, but they are present during embryonic development.
4. What role does the thyroid gland play in vertebrate physiology? The thyroid gland regulates metabolism, growth, and development through the production of thyroid hormones.
5. How does studying Section 33.3 contribute to our understanding of evolution? It allows us to trace the evolutionary relationships between different chordate groups based on the modifications and adaptations of their defining characteristics.
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: College Biology Volume 3 of 3 Textbook Equity, 2014-08-15 (Chapters 33 - 47) See Preview for the full table of contents. All volumes contain Chapter Summaries, Review Questions, Critical Thinking Questions and Answer Keys. Download the free color PDFs at http: //textbookequity.org/tbq_biology/ Customize this text for your class: http: //textbookequity.org/myclasstextbook The full text (volumes 1 through 3) is designed for multi-semester biology courses for science majors. Textbook License: CC BY-SA Fearlessly Copy, Print, Remix Textbook Equity - An Equitable Business Model. Contents Volume 1 The Chemistry of Life through Genomic Proteomics Volume 2 Evolution and the Origin of Species through Asexual Reproduction Volume 3 Animal Structure and Function through Preserving Biodiversity |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: College Biology Volume 2 of 3 Textbook Equity, 2014-08-15 (Chapters 18 - 32) See Preview for full table of contents. College Biology, adapted from OpenStax College's open (CC BY) textbook Biology, is Textbook Equity's derivative to ensure continued free and open access, and to provide low cost print formats. For manageability and economy, Textbook Equity created three volumes from the original that closely match typical semester or quarter biology curriculum. No academic content was changed from the original. The full text (volumes 1 through 3)is designed for multi-semester biology courses for science majors. Instructors can customize the book. Contains Chapter Summaries, Review Questions, Critical Thinking Questions and Answer Keys Download Free Full-Color PDF, too! http: //textbookequity.org/tbq_biology/ Textbook License: CC BY-SA Fearlessly Copy, Print, Remix |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: College Biology Volume 1 of 3 Textbook Equity, 2014-08-15 (Chapters 1-17)See Preview for full table of contents. College Biology, adapted from OpenStax College's open (CC BY) textbook Biology, is Textbook Equity's derivative to ensure continued free and open access, and to provide low cost print formats. For manageability and economy, Textbook Equity created three volumes from the original that closely match typical semester or quarter biology curriculum. No academic content was changed from the original. The full text (volumes 1 through 3)is designed for multi-semester biology courses for science majors. Contains Chapter Summaries, Review Questions, Critical Thinking Questions and Answer Keys Download Free Full-Color PDF, too! http: //textbookequity.org/tbq_biology/ Textbook License: CC BY-SA Fearlessly Copy, Print, Remix |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Chordate Zoology P.S.Verma, 2010-12 FOR B.Sc & B.Sc.(Hons) CLASSES OF ALL INDIAN UNIVERSITIES AND ALSO AS PER UGC MODEL CURRICULUMN Contents: CONTENTS:Protochordates:Hemicholrdata 1.Urochordata Cephalochordata Vertebrates : Cyclostomata 3. Agnatha, Pisces Amphibia 4. Reptilia 5. Aves Mammalia 7 Comparative Anatomy:lntegumentary System 8 Skeletal System Coelom and Digestive System 10 Respiratory System 11. Circulatory System Nervous System 13. Receptor Organs 14 Endocrine System 15 Urinogenital System 16 Embryology Some Comparative Charts of Protochordates 17 Some Comparative Charts of Vertebrate Animal Types 18 Index. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Campbell Biology Australian and New Zealand Edition Jane B. Reece, Noel Meyers, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, 2015-05-20 Over nine successful editions, CAMPBELL BIOLOGY has been recognised as the world’s leading introductory biology textbook. The Australian edition of CAMPBELL BIOLOGY continues to engage students with its dynamic coverage of the essential elements of this critical discipline. It is the only biology text and media product that helps students to make connections across different core topics in biology, between text and visuals, between global and Australian/New Zealand biology, and from scientific study to the real world. The Tenth Edition of Australian CAMPBELL BIOLOGY helps launch students to success in biology through its clear and engaging narrative, superior pedagogy, and innovative use of art and photos to promote student learning. It continues to engage students with its dynamic coverage of the essential elements of this critical discipline. This Tenth Edition, with an increased focus on evolution, ensures students receive the most up-to-date, accurate and relevant information. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: EBOOK Biology Bruce Knox, Pauline Ladiges, Barbara Evans, Robert Saint, 2015-03-06 Biology: An Australian focus reflects on worldwide biological research and knowledge to provide a global outlook with Australian examples and cases woven throughout. Students are able to connect with what they're learning and better understand Australian flora/fauna and most importantly ecology & ecosystems, using this accessible and engaging learning resource. The rich pedagogical layout layout of this text adds to the accessibility of the Biology: An Australian focus learning package. As well as Concept Checks to provide students with the essential takeaway points for each section and help with exam revision, this edition also includes; Self-Assessment and Review and Analysis to test the students' understanding; Evaluation and Application to develop and test critical evaluation skills; and boxed case studies separated into Research, Application, Hot Topics and Focus features, to delve deeper into topics. Biology: An Australian focus offers a complete learning package for all Australian biology students. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Chordate Structure and Function Arnold G. Kluge, 1977 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Biology Kenneth Raymond Miller, Prentice Hall (School Division), 1999-02 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Chordate Origins and Evolution Noriyuki Satoh, 2016-07-14 Chordate Origins and Evolution: The Molecular Evolutionary Road to Vertebrates focuses on echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, and others), hemichordates (acorn worms, etc.), cephalochordates (lancelets), urochordates or tunicates (ascidians, larvaceans and others), and vertebrates. In general, evolution of these groups is discussed independently, on a larger scale: ambulacrarians (echi+hemi) and chordates (cephlo+uro+vert). Until now, discussion of these topics has been somewhat fragmented, and this work provides a unified presentation of the essential information. In the more than 150 years since Charles Darwin proposed the concept of the origin of species by means of natural selection, which has profoundly affected all fields of biology and medicine, the evolution of animals (metazoans) has been studied, discussed, and debated extensively. Following many decades of classical comparative morphology and embryology, the 1980s marked a turning point in studies of animal evolution, when molecular biological approaches, including molecular phylogeny (MP), molecular evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo), and comparative genomics (CG), began to be employed. There are at least five key events in metazoan evolution, which include the origins of 1) diploblastic animals, such as cnidarians; 2) triploblastic animals or bilaterians; 3) protostomes and deuterostomes; 4) chordates, among deuterostomes; and 5) vertebrates, among chordates. The last two have received special attention in relation to evolution of human beings. During the past two decades, great advances have been made in this field, especially in regard to molecular and developmental mechanisms involved in the evolution of chordates. For example, the interpretation of phylogenetic relationships among deuterostomes has drastically changed. In addition, we have now obtained a large quantity of MP, evo-devo, and CG information on the origin and evolution of chordates. - Covers the most significant advances in this field to give readers an understanding of the interesting biological issues involved - Provides a unified presentation of essential information regarding each phylum and an integrative understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in the origin and evolution of chordates - Discusses the evolutionary scenario of chordates based on two major characteristic features of animals—namely modes of feeding (energy sources) and reproduction—as the two main forces driving animal evolution and benefiting dialogue for future studies of animal evolution |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: The M2 Macrophage Tamás Röszer, 2020-08-03 Macrophages are core components of the innate immune system. Once activated, they may have either pro- or anti-inflammatory effects that include pathogen killing, safe disposal of apoptotic cells or tissue renewal. The activation state of macrophages is conceptualized by the so-called M1/M2 model of polarization. M2 macrophages are not simply antagonists of M1 macrophages; rather, they represent a network of tissue resident macrophages with roles in tissue development and organ homeostasis. M2 macrophages govern functions at the interfaces of immunity, tissue development and turnover, metabolism, and endocrine signaling. Dysfunction in M2 macrophages can ruin the healthy interplay between the immune system and metabolic processes, and lead to diseases such as insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Furthermore, M2 macrophages are essential for healthy tissue development and immunological self-tolerance. Worryingly, these functions of M2 macrophages can also be disrupted, resulting in tumor growth and autoimmunity. This book comprehensively discusses the biology of M2 macrophages, summarizes the current state of knowledge, and highlights key questions that remain unanswered. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates Karel F. Liem, Warren Franklin Walker, 2001 This book introduces students to the groups of vertebrates and explores the anatomical evolution of vertebrates within the context of the functional interrelationships of organs and the changing environments to which vertebrates have adapted. The text contains all of the material taught in classic comparative anatomy courses, but integrates this material with current research in functional anatomy. This integration adds a new dimension to our understanding of structure and helps students understand the evolution of vertebrates. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution Kenneth Kardong, 2006 This one-semester text is designed for an upper-level majors course. Vertebrates features a unique emphasis on function and evolution of vertebrates, complete anatomical detail, and excellent pedagogy. Vertebrate groups are organized phylogenetically, and their systems discussed within such a context. Morphology is foremost, but the author has developed and integrated an understanding of function and evolution into the discussion of anatomy of the various systems. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Library of Congress Catalog: Motion Pictures and Filmstrips Library of Congress, 1968 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Principles of Developmental Genetics Sally A. Moody, 2007-07-19 Unlike anything currently available in the market, Dr. Sally A. Moody and a team of world-renowned experts provide a groundbreaking view of developmental genetics that will influence scientific approaches in embryology, comparative biology, as well as the newly emerging fields of stem cell biology and regenerative medicine. Principles of Developmental Genetics highlights the intersection of developmental biology with new revolutionary genomic technologies, and details how these advances have accelerated our understanding of the molecular genetic processes that regulates development. This definitive resource provides researchers with the opportunity to gain important insights into the clinical applicability of emerging new technologies and animal model data. This book is a must-have for all researchers in genetics, developmental biology, regenerative medicine, and stem cell biology.• Includes new research not previously published in any other book on the molecular geneticprocesses that regulates development• Chapters present a broad understanding on the application of animal model systems, allowingresearchers to better treat clinical disorders and comprehend human development• Relates the application of new technologies to the manipulation of stem cells, causes ofhuman birth defects, and several human disease conditions• Each chapter includes a bulleted summary highlighting clinical aspects of animal models |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Vertebrates Kenneth V. Kardong, 1998 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Cumulated Index Medicus , 1997 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Creative Biology Teaching Delma E. Harding, Roger P. Volker, David L. Fagle, 1969 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: The Role of Thyroid Hormones in Vertebrate Development Marco António Campinho, Laurent M. Sachs, 2020-01-24 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Zoology Miller-Harley, 1993-11 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: The Roles of GnIH in Reproductive Function and Behavior Takayoshi Ubuka, Ishwar Parhar, Lance J Kriegsfeld, Kazuyoshi Tsutsui, 2018-03-13 Since the discovery of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at the beginning of 1970s, it has been believed that GnRH is the only hypothalamic neuropeptide that regulates gonadotropin release in vertebrates. In 2000, however, a novel hypothalamic neuropeptide that actively inhibits gonadotropin release was discovered in Japanese quail and termed gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone (GnIH). Following seventeen years of research has revealed that GnIH is highly conserved across vertebrates including humans, and GnIH is involved in a number of physiological and behavioral functions related to reproduction. The aim of this e-book is to celebrate the discovery of GnIH and the progress of GnIH research by collecting review and original articles from leading scientists in this new research field. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Anatomy of the Shark Lionel J. Rosenzweig, 1988 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Acoustic Communication Andrea Simmons, Richard R. Fay, 2002-10-04 In order to communicate, animals send and receive signals that are subject to their particular anatomical, psychological, and environmental constraints. This SHAR volume discusses both the production and perception of acoustic signals. Chapters address the information that animals communicate, how the communication is developed and learned, and how communication systems have adapted and evolved within species. The book will give examples from a variety of species. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology E-Book Shlomo Melmed, Ronald Koenig, Clifford J. Rosen, Richard J. Auchus, Allison B. Goldfine, 2019-11-14 Expertly bridging the gap between basic science and clinical information, Williams Textbook of Endocrinology, 14th Edition, brings together an outstanding collection of world-renowned authors to provide authoritative discussions of the full spectrum of adult and pediatric endocrine system disorders. New chapters and significant revisions throughout keep you up to date with recent advances in medications, therapies, clinical trials, and more. This essential reference is a must-have resource for endocrinologists, endocrine surgeons, gynecologists, internists, pediatricians, and other clinicians who need current, comprehensive coverage of this multifaceted field. - Up to date with recent advances in medications, therapies, and clinical trials. - Provides state-of-the-art coverage of diabetes, metabolic syndrome, metabolic bones disorders, obesity, thyroid disease, testicular disorders, newly defined adrenal disorders and much more - all designed to help you provide optimal care to every patient. - Contains new chapters on Global Burden of Endocrine Disease, Navigation of Endocrine Guidelines, and Transgender Endocrinology. - Includes significant updates to the Diabetes section, including a new chapter on Physiology of Insulin Secretion and greater coverage of Type 2 Diabetes. - Presents current information in a highly illustrated, user-friendly format for quick reference. - Enhanced eBook version included with purchase. Your enhanced eBook allows you to access all of the text, figures, and references from the book on a variety of devices. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: The Biology of Ascidians H. Sawada, H. Yokosawa, C.C. Lambert, 2013-06-29 Ascidians are the invertebrate group that gave rise to vertebrates, thus the biology of ascidians provides an essential key to understanding both invertebrates and vertebrates. This book is the first to cover all areas of ascidian biology, including development, evolution, biologically active substances, heavy metal accumulation, asexual reproduction, host-defense mechanisms, allorecognition mechanisms, comparative immunology, neuroscience, taxonomy, ecology, genome science, and food science. The 69 articles that make up the collection were contributed by leading ascidiologists from all over the world who participated in the First International Symposium on the Biology of Ascidians, held in June 2000 in Sapporo, Japan. For scientists and students alike, the book is an invaluable source of information from the latest, most comprehensive studies of ascidian biology. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Feeding in Vertebrates Vincent Bels, Ian Q. Whishaw, 2019-04-23 This book provides students and researchers with reviews of biological questions related to the evolution of feeding by vertebrates in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Based on recent technical developments and novel conceptual approaches, the book covers functional questions on trophic behavior in nearly all vertebrate groups including jawless fishes. The book describes mechanisms and theories for understanding the relationships between feeding structure and feeding behavior. Finally, the book demonstrates the importance of adopting an integrative approach to the trophic system in order to understand evolutionary mechanisms across the biodiversity of vertebrates. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Vertebrate Photoreceptors Takahisa Furukawa, James B. Hurley, Satoru Kawamura, 2016-08-23 This book provides a series of comprehensive views on various important aspects of vertebrate photoreceptors. The vertebrate retina is a tissue that provides unique experimental advantages to neuroscientists. Photoreceptor neurons are abundant in this tissue and they are readily identifiable and easily isolated. These features make them an outstanding model for studying neuronal mechanisms of signal transduction, adaptation, synaptic transmission, development, differentiation, diseases and regeneration. Thanks to recent advances in genetic analysis, it also is possible to link biochemical and physiological investigations to understand the molecular mechanisms of vertebrate photoreceptors within a functioning retina in a living animal. Photoreceptors are the most deeply studied sensory receptor cells, but readers will find that many important questions remain. We still do not know how photoreceptors, visual pigments and their signaling pathways evolved, how they were generated and how they are maintained. This book will make clear what is known and what is not known. The chapters are selected from fields of studies that have contributed to a broad understanding of the birth, development, structure, function and death of photoreceptor neurons. The underlying common word in all of the chapters that is used to describe these mechanisms is “molecule”. Only with this word can we understand how these highly specific neurons function and survive. It is challenging for even the foremost researchers to cover all aspects of the subject. Understanding photoreceptors from several different points of view that share a molecular perspective will provide readers with a useful interdisciplinary perspective. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Evolution and Development of Fishes Zerina Johanson, Charlie Underwood, Martha Richter, 2019-01-10 World-class palaeontologists and biologists summarise the state-of-the-art on fish evolution and development. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Vertebrate Palaeontology Michael J. Benton, 2024-10-07 All-new edition of the world’s leading vertebrate palaeontology textbook, now addressing key evolutionary transitions and ecological drivers for vertebrate evolution Richly illustrated with colour illustrations of the key species and cladograms of all major vertebrate taxa, Vertebrate Palaeontology provides a complete account of the evolution of vertebrates, including macroevolutionary trends and drivers that have shaped their organs and body plans, key transitions such as terrestrialization, endothermy, flight and impacts of mass extinctions on biodiversity and ecological drivers behind the origin of chordates and vertebrates, their limbs, jaws, feathers, and hairs. This revised and updated fifth edition features numerous recent examples of breakthrough discoveries in line with the current macroevolutionary approach in palaeontology research, such as the evolutionary drivers that have shaped vertebrate development. Didactical features have been enhanced and include new functional and developmental feature spreads, key questions, and extensive references to useful websites. Written by a leading academic in the field, Vertebrate Palaeontology discusses topics such as: Palaeozoic fishes, including Cambrian vertebrates, placoderms (‘armour-plated monsters’), Pan-Chondrichthyes such as sharks and rays, and Osteichthyes (‘bony fishes’) The first tetrapods, covering problems of life on land, diversity of Carboniferous tetrapods and temnospondyls and reptiliomorphs following the Carboniferous Mesozoic reptiles, such as Testudinata (turtles), Crocodylomorpha, Pterosauria, Dinosauria, great sea dragons and Lepidosauria (lizards and snakes) Mammals of the southern and northern hemispheres, covering Xenarthra (sloths, anteaters), Afrotheria (African mammals), Laurasiatheria (bats, ungulates, carnivores), and Euarchontoglires (rodents, primates) A highly comprehensive and completely up-to-date reference on vertebrate evolution, Vertebrate Palaeontology is an ideal learning aid for palaeontology courses in biology and geology departments. The text is also highly valuable to enthusiasts who want to experience the flavour of how modern research in the field is conducted. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Host and Microbe Adaptations in the Evolution of Immunity Larry J. Dishaw, Gary W. Litman, 2019-12-31 The evolution of metazoans has been accompanied by new interfaces with the microbial environment that include biological barriers and surveillance by specialized cell types. Increasingly complex organisms require increased capacities to confront pathogens, achieved by co-evolution of recognition mechanisms and regulatory pathways. Two distinct but interactive forms of immunity have evolved. Innate immunity, shared by all metazoans, is traditionally viewed as simple and non-specific. Adaptive immunity possesses the capacity to anticipate new infectious challenges and recall previous exposures; the most well-understood example of such a system, exhibited by lymphocytes of vertebrates, is based on somatic gene alterations that generate extraordinary specificity in discrimination of molecular structures. Our understanding of immune phylogeny over the past decades has tried to reconcile immunity from a vertebrate standpoint. While informative, such approaches cannot completely address the complex nature of selective pressures brought to bear by the complex microbiota (including pathogens) that co-exist with all metazoans. In recent years, comparative studies (and new technologies) have broadened our concepts of immunity from a systems-wide perspective. Unexpected findings, e.g., genetic expansions of innate receptors, high levels of polymorphism, RNA-based forms of generating diversity, adaptive evolution and functional divergence of gene families and the recognition of novel mediators of adaptive immunity, prompt us to reconsider the very nature of immunity. Even fundamental paradigms as to how the jawed vertebrate adaptive immune system should be structured for “optimal” recognition potential have been disrupted more than once (e.g., the discovery of the multicluster organization and germline joining of immunoglobulin genes in sharks, gene conversion as a mechanism of somatic diversification, absence of IgM or MHC II in certain teleost fishes). Mechanistically, concepts of innate immune memory, often referred to as “trained memory,” have been realized further, with the development of new discoveries in studies of epigenetic regulation of somatic lineages. Immune systems innovate and adapt in a taxon-specific manner, driven by the complexity of interactions with microbial symbionts (commensals, mutualists and pathogens). Immune systems are shaped by selective forces that reflect consequences of dynamic interactions with microbial environments as well as a capacity for rapid change that can be facilitated by genomic instabilities. We have learned that characterizing receptors and receptor interactions is not necessarily the most significant component in understanding the evolution of immunity. Rather, such a subject needs to be understood from a more global perspective and will necessitate re-consideration of the physical barriers that afford protection and the developmental processes that create them. By far, the most significant paradigm shifts in our understanding of immunity and the infection process has been that microbes no longer are considered to be an automatic cause or consequence of illness, but rather integral components of normal physiology and homeostasis. Immune phylogeny has been shaped not only by an arms race with pathogens but also perhaps by mutualistic interactions with resident microbes. This Research Topic updates and extends the previous eBook on Changing Views of the Evolution of Immunity and contains peer-reviewed submissions of original research, reviews and opinions. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Reproductive Neuroendocrinology and Social Behavior Ishwar S. Parhar, Tomoko Soga, Sonoko Ogawa, 2016-10-12 Anti-social behaviors and social deficits induced mental disorders are critical problems in our society today. Social behaviors and interactions are shaped by experience, hereditary components (genes, hormones and neuropeptides) and environmental factors (photoperiods and metabolic signals). In addition to the classical gonadotropin-releasing hormone, RFamide peptides, kisspeptin and gonadotropin-inhibiting hormone are emerging as important regulators of the reproductive axis. These neuropeptides are evolutionarily conserved and are regulated by environmental factors. In this Research Topic, we advocate more recent advances in reproductive neuropeptides and sex steroids in the domains of social behavior including sexual and parental behavior, aggression, stress and anxiety. Using multiple species model, we also review how genes and the neuroendocrine system interact at the cell and organismic levels to contribute to social behavior in particular the epigenetic genomic changes caused by early life environment. We provide comprehensive insights of distinct neural networks and how cellular and molecular events in the brain regulate social behavior from a comparative perspective. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Index Medicus , 2004 Vols. for 1963- include as pt. 2 of the Jan. issue: Medical subject headings. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Mental Health Research Institute Staff Publications University of Michigan. Mental Health Research Institute, 1974 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Animal Eyes Michael F. Land, Dan-Eric Nilsson, 2012-03 This book covers the way that all known types of eyes work, from their optics to the behaviour they guide. The ways that eyes sample the world in space and time are considered, and the evolutionary origins of eyes are discussed. This new edition incorporates discoveries made since the first edition published in 2001. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Peptide Hydrolases—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition , 2013-06-21 Peptide Hydrolases—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition is a ScholarlyEditions™ book that delivers timely, authoritative, and comprehensive information about Serine Proteases. The editors have built Peptide Hydrolases—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition on the vast information databases of ScholarlyNews.™ You can expect the information about Serine Proteases in this book to be deeper than what you can access anywhere else, as well as consistently reliable, authoritative, informed, and relevant. The content of Peptide Hydrolases—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition has been produced by the world’s leading scientists, engineers, analysts, research institutions, and companies. All of the content is from peer-reviewed sources, and all of it is written, assembled, and edited by the editors at ScholarlyEditions™ and available exclusively from us. You now have a source you can cite with authority, confidence, and credibility. More information is available at http://www.ScholarlyEditions.com/. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: The Heart and Circulation Branko Furst, 2013-08-13 This book traces the development of the basic concepts in cardiovascular physiology in the light of the accumulated experimental and clinical evidence and, rather than making the findings fit the standard pressure-propulsion mold, let the phenomena ‘speak for themselves’. It starts by considering the early embryonic circulation, where blood passes through the valveless tube heart at a rate that surpasses the contractions of its walls, suggesting that the blood is not propelled by the heart, but possesses its own motive force, tightly coupled to the metabolic demands of the tissues. Rather than being an organ of propulsion, the heart, on the contrary, serves as a damming-up organ, generating pressure by rhythmically impeding the flow of blood. The validity of this model is then confirmed by comparing the key developmental stages of the cardiovascular system in the invertebrates, the insects and across the vertebrate taxa. The salient morphological and histological features of the myocardium are reviewed with particular reference to the vortex. The complex, energy-dissipating intracardiac flow-patterns likewise suggest that the heart functions as an organ of impedance, whose energy consumption closely matches the generated pressure, but not its throughput. Attention is then turned to the regulation of cardiac output and to the arguments advanced by proponents of the ‘left ventricular’ and of the ‘venous return’ models of circulation. Hyperdynamic states occurring in arteriovenous fistulas and congenital heart defects, where communication exists between the systemic and pulmonary circuits at the level of atria or the ventricles, demonstrate that, once the heart is unable to impede the flow of blood, reactive changes occur in the pulmonary and systemic circulations, leading to pulmonary hypertension and Eisenmenger syndrome. Finally, the key points of the nook are summarized in the context of blood as a ‘liquid organ’ with autonomous movement. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Adaptive Function and Brain Evolution Agustín González, Fernando Martinez-Garcia, Luis Puelles, Hans J Ten Donkelaar, 2014-10-27 The brain of each animal shows specific traits that reflect its phylogenetic history and its particular lifestyle. Therefore, comparing brains is not just a mere intellectual exercise, but it helps understanding how the brain allows adaptive behavioural strategies to face an ever-changing world and how this complex organ has evolved during phylogeny, giving rise to complex mental processes in humans and other animals. These questions attracted scientists since the times of Santiago Ramon y Cajal one of the founders of comparative neurobiology. In the last decade, this discipline has undergone a true revolution due to the analysis of expression patterns of morphogenetic genes in embryos of different animals. The papers of this e-book are good examples of modern comparative neurobiology, which mainly focuses on the following four Grand Questions: a) How are different brains built during ontogeny? b) What is the anatomical organization of mature brains and how can they be compared? c) How do brains work to accomplish their function of ensuring survival and, ultimately, reproductive success? d) How have brains evolved during phylogeny? The title of this e-book, Adaptive Function and Brain Evolution, stresses the importance of comparative studies to understand brain function and, the reverse, of considering brain function to properly understand brain evolution. These issues should be taken into account when using animals in the research of mental function and dysfunction, and are fundamental to understand the origins of the human mind. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: National Union Catalog , 1973 Includes entries for maps and atlases. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: BIOLOGY OF NON-CHORDATES FATIK BARAN MANDAL, 2017-11-01 The second edition of the book is an elaborated and updated version of the title Invertebrate Zoology, which was published in the year 2012. In addition to the detailed description of representative genus of each of the major groups, the text provides latest developments in zoology and other related life science disciplines. This book, now with a different title in the second edition, gives an account of 36 phyla in comparison of 12 phyla explained in the first edition. NEW TO THE SECOND EDITION • Explains phyla such as Placozoa, Myxozoa, Nemertea, Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, Cycliophora, Xenoturbellida, Acoelomorpha, Orthonectida, Rhombozoa, Gastrotricha, Kinorhyncha, Lorcifera, Priapulida, Nematoda, Nematomorpha, Acanthocephala, Entoprocta, Sipuncula, Echiura, Pentastomida, Onychophora, Tardigrada, Brachiopoda and Chaetognatha in the light of recent studies. • Discusses contemporary accounts on adaptive morphology, anatomy and physiology, including diversity in the mode of locomotion, nutrition, respiration and reproduction in major groups. • Emphasizes life cycle pattern of representative genus with well-illustrated diagrams. • Provides Short- and Long-answer questions at the end of each chapter along with references. |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: St. Thomas's Hospital Gazette , 1959 |
| section 33 3 form and function in chordates: Craniofacial Muscles Linda K. McLoon, Francisco Andrade, 2012-09-13 Of the approximately 640 muscles in the human body, over 10% of them are found in the craniofacial region. The craniofacial muscles are involved in a number of crucial non-locomotor activities, and are critical to the most basic functions of life, including vision, taste, chewing and food manipulation, swallowing, respiration, speech, as well as regulating facial expression and controlling facial aperture patency. Despite their importance, the biology of these small skeletal muscles is relatively unexplored. Only recently have we begun to understand their unique embryonic development and the genes that control it and characteristic features that separate them from the skeletal muscle stereotype. This book is the most comprehensive reference to date on craniofacial muscle development, structure, function, and disease. It details the state-of-the-art basic science of the craniofacial muscles, and describes their unique response to major neuromuscular conditions. Most importantly, the text highlights how the craniofacial muscles are different from most skeletal muscles, and why they have been viewed as a distinct allotype. In addition, the text points to major gaps in our knowledge about these very important skeletal muscles and identified key gaps in our knowledge and areas primed for further study and discovery. |
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